Seongsoo Yum

Research interests

• Cloud Physics
• Cloud Observation and numerical modeling
• Cloud seeding experiment

Education

• Ph.D. (1998) Univ. of Nevada, Reno, USA
• M.Sc. (1986) Dep. of Astronomy & Atmospheric Science, Yonsei University, Seoul, Korea
• B.Sc. (1984) Dep. of Astronomy & Meteorology, Yonsei University, Seoul, Korea

Work Experience

• Yale University in U.S.A (Post Doc. 2001.3-2001.8)
• Desert Research Institute in U.S.A (Post Doc. 1998.9-2001.3)
• Metri in KMA, Lab. of App. & Radar (기상연구사,1987.8- 1990.6)

Courses

• Atmospheric Physics Ⅰ
• Statistical Analysis in Meteorology
• Cloud and Precipitation Processes
• Meteorological Data Processing

Selected Publications

• Kim, A. H., Yum, S. S., Chang, D. Y., & Park, M. (2020). Optimization of Sulfate Aerosol Hygroscopicity Parameter in WRF-Chem version (3.8.1). Geoscientific Model Development Discussions, 1-27.
• Chang, D. Y., J. Lelieveld, B. Steil, J. Yoon, S. S. Yum, and A.-H. Kim, 2020: Variability of aerosol-cloud interactions induced by different cloud droplet nucleation schemes. Atmos. Res., accepted.
• 김민석, 이서영, 조예슬, 구자호, 염성수, 김준, 2020: 서울의 기상 조건에 따른 미세먼지와 시정 거리의 상관성, 대기, 게재 승인
• Kim, N., S. S. Yum, M. Park, J. S. Park, H. J. Shin, and J. Y. Ahn, 2020: Hygroscopicity of urban aerosols and its link to size-resolved chemical composition during spring/summer in Seoul, Korea. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 11245-11262, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-11245-2020.
• Choi, K. O., S. S. Yum, D. Y. Chang, J. M. Yeom and S. S. Lee, 2020: A study of the effect of regenerated CCN on marine stratocumulus cloud development using the WRF-LES model with spectral bin microphysics scheme. Atmos. Res., 246, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atomsres.2020.105100.
• Cha, J. W., and S. S. Yum, 2020: Characteristics of precipitation particles measured by PARSIVEL disdrometer at a mountain and a coastal site in Korea. Asia-Pac. J. Atmos. Sci., https://doi.org/10.1007/s13143-020-00190-6.
• Park, M., S. S. Yum, N. Kim, B. E. Anderson, A. Beyersdorf, and K. L. Thornhill, 2020: On the submicron aerosol distributions and CCN activity in and around the Korean Peninsula measured onboard the NASA DC-8 research aircraft during the KORUS-AQ campaign, Atmos. Res., 243, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2020.105004.
• Lu, C., Y. Liu, S. S. Yum, J. Chen, L. Zhu, S. Gao, Y. Yin, X. Jia, and Y. Wang, 2020: Reconciling contrasting relationships between relative dispersion and volume-mean radius of cloud droplet size distributions. J. Geophys. Res., 125, e2019JD031868, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JD031868.
• Zhu, L, C. Lu, S. Gao and S. S. Yum, 2020: Spectral width of cloud droplet spectra and its impact factors in marine stratocumulus. Chinese J. of Atmos. Sci., 44, 575-590, doi: 10.3878/j.issn.1006-9895.1905.19115.
• Park, J., M. Dall’Ssto, K. Park. Y. Gim, H. J. Kang, E. Jang, K.-T. Park, M. Park, S. S. Yum, J. Jung, B. Y. Lee, and Y. J. Yoon, 2020: Shipborne observations reveal contrasting Arctic marine, Arctic terrestrial and Pacific marine aerosol properties. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 5573-5590, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-5573-2020.
• Kim, W., S. S. Yum, J. Hong, and J. I. Song, 2020: Improvement of fog predictability by the nudging of a meteorological tower data in the WRF and PAFOG coupled model. Atmosphere, 11, 311, doi:10.3390/atmos11030311.
• La, I., S. S. Yum, I. Gultepe, J. M. Yeom, J. I. Song, and J. W. Cha, 2020: Influence of quasi-periodic oscillation of atmospheric variables on radiation fog over a mountainous region of Korea. Atmosphere, 11, 230, doi:10.3390/atmos11030230.
• Kim, W., S. S. Yum, and C. K. Kim, 2020: Numerical simulation of sea fog over the Yellow Sea: Comparison between UM+PAFOG and WRF+PAFOG coupled systems. Asia-Pac. J. of Atmos. Sci., 56, 89-105, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13143-019-00134-9.
• Min, S., K.-H. Shin, W. Baek, K. Kim, C.-H. You, D.-I. Lee, S. S. Yum, W. Kim, K.-H. Chang, 2020: Dynamical Behavior of Combined Detrended Cross-Correlation Analysis Methods in Random Walks and Levy Flights. Physica A: Stat. Mech. And Appl., 539, 122872, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physa.2019.122872.
• 송재인, 염성수, 2019: 서울에서의 미세먼지 저감을 위한 인공강수 가능성 진단. 대기, 29, 609-614, https://doi.org/10.14191/Atmos.2019.29.5.609.
• 심성보, 권상훈, 임윤진, 염성수, 변영화, 2019: 1.5/2.0 C 지구온난화 시나리오 기반의 동아시아 기후변화 분석. 대기, 29, 391-401, https://doi.org/10.14191/Atmos.2019.29.4.391.
• Shim, S., J. Kim, S. S. Yum, H. Lee, K.-O. Boo and Y.-W. Byun, 2019: Effects of anthropogenic and natural forcings on the summer temperature variations in East Asia during the 20th century. Atmosphere, 10, 690, https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10110690.
• Yeom, J. M., S. S. Yum, F. Mei, B. Schmid, J. Comstock, L. A. Machado, and M. A. Cecchini, 2019: Impact of secondary droplet activation on the contrasting cloud microphysical relationships during the wet and dry seasons in the Amazon. Atmos. Res., 230, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2019.104648.
• Park, J., M. Dall’Osto, K. Park,…..S. S. Yum et al., 2019: Arctic primary aerosol production strongly influenced by reverine organic matter. Environ. Sci. Technol., 53, 8621-8630. DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b03399.
• Yoon, J., D. Y. Chang, J. Lelieveld, A. Pozzer, J. Kim and S. S. Yum, 2019: Empirical evidence of a positive climate forcing of aerosols at elevated albedo. Atmos. Res., 229, 269-279, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2019.07.001.
• Song, J. I., S. S. Yum, I. Gultepe, K.-H. Chang, and B.-G. Kim, 2019: Development of a new visibility parameterization based on the measurement of fog microphysics at a mountain site in Korea. Atmos. Res., 229, 115-126, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2019.06.011
• Kim, C. K, S. S. Yum, H.-G. Kim, and Y.-H. Kang, 2019: A WRF modeling study on the effect of land use changes on fog off the west coast of the Korean peninsula. Pure. Appl. Geophys., 176, 463-4640, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-019-02242-z
• Shin, K.-H., W. Baek, K. Kim, C.-H. You, K.-H. Chang, D.-I. Lee and S. S. Yum, 2019: Neural network and regression methods for optimizations between two meteorological factors. Physica A: Stat. Mech. And Appl., 523, 778-796, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.Physa.2019.01.113
• Gultepe, I., … S. S. Yum et al., 2019: A review of high impact weather for aviation meteorology. Pure Appl. Geophys., 176, 1869-1921, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00023-019-02168-6
• Park, M., S. S. Yum, N. Kim, J. W. Cha, B. Shin, S. B. Ryoo, 2018: Characterization of submicron aerosols and CCN measured over the Yellow sea onboard the Gisang 1 research vessel using the positive matrix factorization analysis method. Atmos. Res., 214, 430-441.
• Um, J., G. M. McFarquhar, J. L. Stith, C. H. Jung, S. S. lee, J. Y. Lee, Y. Shin, Y. G. Lee, Y. I. Yang, S. S. Yum, B.-G. Kim, J. W. Cha, and A-Reum Ko, 2018: Microphysical characteristics of frozen droplet aggregates from deep convective clouds. Atmos. Phys. Chem., 18, 16915-16930.
• Kim, A-H, S. S. Yum, H. Lee, D. Y. Chang, and S. Shim, 2018: Polar cooling effect due to increases of phytoplankton and dimethyl-sulfide emission. Atmosphere, 9, 384, doi:10.3390/atmos9100384
• 김아현, 염성수, 장동영, 2018: 구름방울 활성화 과정 모수화 방법에 따른 구름 형성의 민감도 실험. 대기, 28, 211-222.
• Kim, N., M. Park, S. S. Yum, J. S. Park, H. J. Shin, and J. Y. Ahn, 2018: Impact of urban aerosol properties on cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) activity during the KORUS-AQ field campaign. Atmos. Env., 185, 221-236.
• Lee, S. S., B.-G. Kim, H.-G. Nam, S. S. Yum, Y.-S. Choi, C.-H. Jung, 2018: Factors that control heavy snowfalls in the eastern coast of Korea. Terr. Atmos. Oceanic Sci., 29, 187-200.
• Lu, C., Y. Liu, B. Zhu, S. S. Yum, S. Krueger, Y. Qiu, S. Niu, and S. Luo, 2018: On which microphysical time scale to use in study of entrainment-mixing mechanisms in clouds. J. Geophys. Res., 123, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JD027985
• Schmale, J., S. Henning, … M. Park, …. S. S. Yum et al., 2018: Long term cloud condensation nuclei number concentration, particle number size distribution, and chemical composition measurements at regionally representative observatories. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 18, 2853-2881, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-2853-2018.
• Chae, S., K.-H. Chang, S.-K. Seo, J.-Y. Jeong, B.-J. Kim, C.-K. Kim, S. S. Yum, and J. Kim, 2018: Numerical simulations of airborne glaciogenic cloud seeding using the WRF model with the modified Morrison scheme over the Pyeongchang region in the winter of 2016. Adv. Meteor., Vol. 2018, Article ID8453460, https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/8453460
• Yeom, J. M., S. S. Yum, Y. Liu and C. Lu, 2017: A study on the entrainment and mixing process in the continental stratocumulus clouds measured during the RACORO campaign. Atmos. Res., 194, 89-99, dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2017.04.028.
• Schmale, J., S. Henning, … M. Park, …. S. S. Yum et al., 2017: Collocated observations of cloud condensation nuclei, particle size distributions, and chemical composition. Sci. Data 4:170003 DOI:10.1038/sdata.2017.3.
• Lee, S. S., B-G Kim, S. S. Yum, K-H Seo, C-H Jung, J. S. Um, Z Li, J. Hong, K-H Chang, 2017: Effects of aerosol on evaporation, freezing and precipitation in a multiple cloud system. Clim Dyn., 48, 1069-1087.
• Kim, N., Park, M., Yum, S. S., Park, J. S., Song, I. H., Shin, H. J., … & Lee, G. (2017). Hygroscopic properties of urban aerosols and their cloud condensation nuclei activities measured in Seoul during the MAPS-Seoul campaign. Atmospheric Environment, 153, 217-232.
• Lee, H., Yum, S. S., & Shim, S. (2016). Implementation of a new empirical relationship between aerosol and cloud droplet concentrations in a climate model. Climate Research, 70(1), 57-76.
• Seong Soo Yum, Jian Wang, Yangang Liu, Gunnar Senum, Stephen Springston, Robert McGraw, and Jae Min Yeom, 2015: Cloud microphysical relationships and their implication on entrainment and mixing mechanism for the stratocumulus clouds measured during the VOCALS project, Journal of Geophysical Research, 120, 10.1002/2014JD022802
• Minsu Park, Seong Soo Yum, Jong Hwan Kim, 2015: Characteristics of submicron aerosol number size distribution and new particle formation events measured in Seoul, Korea, during 2004-2012, Asia-Pac. J. Atmos. Sci., 51(1), 1-10
• Kim, J. H., S. S. Yum, S. Shim, W. J. Kim, M. Park, J.-H. Kim, M.-H. Kim, S.-C. Yoon, 2014: On the submicron aerosol distributions and CCN number concentrations in and around the Korean Peninsula, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 8763-8779
• Lee, H., S. S. Yum, and S. S. Lee, 2014: A modeling study of the aerosol effects on ice microphysics in convective cloud and precipitation development under different thermodynamic conditions, Atmos. Res., 145-146, 112–129.
• Kim, C. K. and S. S. Yum, 2013: A study on the transition mechanism of stratus cloud in fog over warm sea surface using a single column model coupled with WRF, Asia-Pacific Journal of Atmospheric Sciences, 49, 245-257.
• 이한아, 염성수, 심성보, 부경온, 조천호 2013: 기상청 지구시스템 모델에서의 구름입자 수농도 모수화방법 개선, 한국기상학회, 대기, 24(1), 111-122.
• 송윤영, 염성수 2013: 인천국제공항의 안개 특성에 따른 안개 안정 지수 FSI(Fog Stability Index) 개발 및 검증 , 한국기상학회, 대기 23(4), 2013.12, 443-452
• Song, K. and S. S. Yum, 2012: Anthropogenic radiative forcing of marine stratocumulus clouds under different thermodynamic conditions-an LES model study, Atmos. Res., 118, 370–389
• Kim, C. K., and S. S. Yum, 2012: A numerical study of sea fog formation over cold sea surface using a one-dimensional turbulence model coupled with the Weather Research and Forecasting Model, Boundary Layer Meteorology, 143, 481-505, DOI 10.1007/s10546-012-9706-9 ( 5월).
• Kim, C. K., and S. S. Yum, 2012: Marine boundary layer structure for the sea fog formation off the west coast of the Korean Peninsula, Pure and Appl. Geophys., 169, 1121-1135, DOI 10.1007/s00024-011-0325-z ( 5월).
• 이한아, 염성수, 2012: Takahashi 구름모형에서의 얼음입자 충돌효율 개선, 대기, 22(1), 73-85.
• 김종환,박민수, 심성보, 염성수, 2011: 대관령과 영종도에서 측정한 에어러솔 크기분포 및 CCN 수농도에 관한 연구,대기, 22(1), 87-96.
• K. Kim, S. S. Yum, 2011: A numerical study of sea fog formation over cold sea surface using a one-dimensional, Boundary- Layer Meteorology.
• Chunsong Lu, Yangang Liu, Seong Soo Yum, Shengjie Niu, and Satoshi Endo, 2011: A New Approach for Estimating Entrainment Rate in Cumulus Clouds, Geophysical Research Letters.
• I. Kleinman, P. H. Daum, Y.-N. Lee, E. R. Lewis, A. J. Sedlacek Ⅲ, G. I. Senum, S. R. Springston, J. Wang, J. Hubbe, J. Jayne, Q. Min, S. S. Yum, and G. Allen, Aerosol concentration and size distribution measured below, in, and above cloud from the DOE G-1 during VOCALS-Rex, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 12, 207-223.
• Chang Ki Kim, Seong Soo Yum, 2011: Marine Boundary Layer Structure for Sea Fog Formation off the West Coast of the Korean peninsula, Pure And Applied Geophysics.
• Kim, J. H., S. S. Yum, S. Shim, S.-C. Yoon, J. G. Hudson, and S.-J. Lee, 2011: On aerosol hygroscopicity, cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) spectra and critical supersaturation measured at two remote islands of Korea between 2006 and 2009, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 12627-12645.
• Lim, K.-S. S., S.-Y. Hong, S. S. Yum, J. Dudhia, and J. B. Klemp, 2010: Aerosol effects on the development of a supercell storm in a double-moment bulk-cloud microphysics scheme, J. Geophys. Res., 116,D02204, DOI: 10.1029/2010JD014128.
• Yum, S. S., and J.-W. Cha, 2010: Suppression of very low intensity precipitation in Korea, Atmos. Res., 98, 118-124 (9월).
• 이현혜, 김진영, 이승복, 배귀남, 염성수, 2010: 서울 지역 겨울철 대기 에어로졸의 수 농도 및 산란계수 분석, Particle and aerosol research (한국입자에어로졸학회지), 6, 91-103.
• Song, M., M. Lee, J. H. Kim, S. S. Yum, G. Lee, and K.-R. Kim, 2010: New particle formation and growth in relation to vertical mixing and chemical species during ABC-EAREX2005. Atmos. Res. 97, 359-370 (7월).
• Kim, C. K., and S. S. Yum, 2010: Local meteorological and synoptic characteristics of the fogs formed over Incheon International Airport in the west coast of Korea. Adv. Atmos. Sci., 27, 761-776. (7월)
• Wang, J., P. H. Daum, S. S. Yum, Y. Liu, G. I. Senum, M.-L. Lu, J. H. Seinfeld, and H. Jonsson, 2009: Observations of marine stratocumulus microphysics and implications for processes controlling droplet spectra: result from the Marine Stratus/Stratocumulus Experiment (MASE). J. Geophys. Res., 114, D18210, doi:10.1029/2008JD011035 (9월).
• Kim, J. H., S. S. Yum, Y.-G. Lee, and B.-C. Choi, 2009: Ship measurements of submicron aerosol size distributions over the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea. Atmos. Res., 93, 700-714. (6월)
• Lee, M.-J., K.-H. Chang, G.-M. Park, J.-Y. Jeong, H.-Y. Yang, K.-D. Jeong, J.-W. Cha, S. S. Yum, J.-C. Nam, K. Kim and B.-C. Choi, 2009: Preliminary results of the ground-based orographic snow enhancement experiment of the easterly cold fog (cloud) at Daegwallyeong during the 2006 Winter. Adv. Atmos. Sci., 26, 222-228. (3월)
• Cha, J. W. K.-H. Chang, S. S. Yum and Y.-J. Choi, 2009: Comparison of the bright band characteristics measured by micro rain radar (MRR) at a mountain and a coastal site in South Korea. Adv. Atmos. Sci., 26, 211-221. (3월)
• 심성보, 윤영준, 염성수, 차주완, 김종환, 김준, 이방용, 2008: 네펠로미터로 관측한 서울의 에어러솔 산란계수 특성. 대기, 18, 459-474. (12월)
• Kuwata, M., Y. Kondo, Y. Miyazaki, J. H. Kim, S. S. Yum, H. Tanimoto, and H. Matsueda, 2008: Cloud condensation nuclei activity at Jeju Island, Korea in spring 2005. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 2933-2948. (6월?)
• Liu, Y., P. Daum, and S. S. Yum, 2008: Ship tracks revisited: new understanding and cloud parameterization. Asia-Pacific Journal of Atmospheric Sciences, 44, 1-9. (1월)
• Yang, H.-J., and S. S. Yum, 2007: Effects of Prescribed Initial Cloud Droplet Spectra on Convective Cloud and Precipitation Developments under Different Thermodynamic Conditions: a Modeling and Observational Study. Atmos. Res., 86, 207-224.
• 이승철, 김종환, 염성수, 조천호 안강호, 2007: H-TDMA를 이용한 대기 에어로졸 흡습성 측정. Particle and Aerosol Research, 3권, 3-4호, 95-103. (11월)
• Yum, S. S., G. Roberts, J. H. Kim , K. Song and D. Kim, 2007: Submicron aerosol size distributions and cloud condensation nuclei concentrations measured at Gosan, Korea during the ABC-EAREX 2005. J. Geophys. Res., 112, D22S32, doi:10.1029/2006JD008212.
• 장기호, 오성남, 정기덕, 양하영, 이명주, 정진임, 조요한, 김효경, 박균명, 염성수, 차주완, 2007: 구름물리관측시스템 및 산출물검정. 대기, 17, 101-108.
• Cha, J. W., S. S. Yum, K.-H. Chang, and S. N. Oh, 2007: Estimation of the Melting Layer from a Micro Rain Radar (MRR) data at the Cloud Physics Observation System (CPOS) site at Daegwallyeong Weather Station. J. the Korean Meteor. Soc., 43, 1, 77-85.
• Lee, Y., B. Choi and S. S. Yum, 2006: Characteristics of atmospheric aerosols observed at Anmyeon, Korea during the ABC Gosan EAREX 2005 campaign period. International Journal of Applied Environmental Sciences, 1, 1.
• Liu, Y., P. Daum, and S. S. Yum, 2006: Analytical expression for the relative dispersion of the cloud droplet size distribution. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L02810, doi:10.1029/2005GL024052.
• 김창기, 염성수, 오성남, 남재철, 장기호, 2005: 한반도에서의 인공증우(설) 실험 성공 가능성에 대한 연구. 한국기상학회지, 41, 997-1014.
• Yum, S. S., J. G. Hudson, K. Y. Song, and B. Choi, 2005: Springtime cloud condensation nuclei concentrations on the west coast of the Korea. Geophy. Res. Lett., 32, L09814, doi:10.1029/2005GL022641.
• Yum, S. S., and J. G. Hudson, 2005: Adiabatic predictions and observations of cloud droplet spectral broadness. Atmos. Res., 73, 203-223.
• 염성수, 오성남, 김정윤, 김창기, 남재철, 2004: 전방산란 스펙트로미터(FSSP)를 이용한 구름입자 크기분포 관측. 한국기상학회지, 40, 623-631.
• 염성수, 2004: 작은 온난 적운에서의 구름미세물리 상관관계의 규모 의존성. 한국기상학회지, 40, 531-540.
• 양희정 과 염성수, 2004: 2차원 구름모형을 이용한 인공증우 실험 연구. 한국기상학회지, 40, 419-439.
• 송근용 과 염성수, 2004: ACE Asia 기간 중 해양성/대륙성 구름의 미세물리적 대조에 대한 연구. 한국기상학회지, 40, 147-159.
• Yum, S. S., and J. G. Hudson, 2004: Wintertime/summertime contrasts of cloud condensation nuclei and cloud microphysics over the Southern Ocean. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D06204, doi:10.1029/2003JD003864. (3월 27일)
• Hudson, J. G., and S. S. Yum, 2002: Cloud condensation nuclei spectra and polluted and clean clouds over the Indian Ocean. J. Geophys. Res., 107, D19, 8022, doi:10.1029/2001JD000829.
• Yum, S. S., and J. G. Hudson, 2002: Maritime/continental microphysical contrasts in stratocumulus. Tellus, Series B, 54, 61-73.
• Twohy, C. H., J. G. Hudson, J. R. Anderson, S. K. Durlak, S. S. Yum, and D. Baumgardner, 2001: Characteristics of Cloud Nucleating Aerosols in the Indian Ocean Region. J. Geophys. Res., 106, 28699- 28710.
• Yum, S. S., and J. G. Hudson, 2001: Vertical distributions of cloud condensation nuclei spectra over the springtime Arctic Ocean. J. Geophys. Res, 106, 15045-15052.
• Hudson, J. G., and S. S. Yum, 2001: Marine-continental drizzle contrast in small cumuli. J. Atmos. Sci., 58, 915-926.
• Yum, S. S., and J. G. Hudson, 2001: Microphysical relationships in warm clouds. Atmos. Res., 57, 81-104.
• Hudson, J. G., T. J. Garrett, P. V. Hobbs, S. R. Strader, Y. Xie, and S. S. Yum, 2000: Cloud condensation nuclei and ship track clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 57, 2696-2706.
• Hudson, J. G., and S. S. Yum, 1999: Reply to comments on “Droplet spectral broadening in marine stratus” by Telford. J. Atmos. Sci., 56, 2264-2265.
• Hudson, J. G., Y. Xie and S. S. Yum, 1998: Vertical distribution of cloud condensation nuclei spectra over the summertime Southern Ocean. J. Geophys. Res., 103, 16609-16624.
• Yum, S. S., J. G. Hudson, and Y. Xie, 1998: Comparisons of cloud microphysics with cloud condensation nuclei spectra over the summertime Southern Ocean. J. Geophys. Res., 103, 16625-16636.
• Hudson, J. G., and S. S. Yum, 1997: Droplet spectral broadening in marine stratus. J. Atmos. Sci., 54, 2642-2654.